The Definitive AFM Modes Handbook: 2026 Edition

Since its development in the early 1980s, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used in groundbreaking research, leading to a constant stream of new applications. AFM has allowed researchers to map structures and properties on the micrometer and nanometer levels, which has led to its wide adoption in fields from semiconductors and piezoelectric materials to energy research and biology. As the technology has matured, AFM has given scientists the opportunity to characterize features at ever‑smaller scales, including such firsts as mapping a live HeLa cell and achieving atomic resolution on a crystal lattice, among others. The many advances in AFM technology over the past several decades have aimed to extend measurements to soft and fragile samples, broaden applications beyond mere topographical characterization, and improve measurement consistency and ease of use. These advancements have not been limited to specific experiments or applications but rather have been added to the common analytical toolboxes of researchers across a variety of applications. Central to all these new advances and approaches are AFM modes.